Disk Brake

UA-29869588-1

Disk Brake

Introduction

The meaning of a break means interrupt (continuity, sequence, or course). In Automobile we use the term break as the interruption of speed. In a little over a hundred years since the automobile took hold of people's imagination, technologies designed to make them accelerate faster and reach higher speeds have evolved with a fury the likes of which we can only see in the aeronautics industry. Still, despite chargers, turbochargers, twin turbochargers or NOX, there are limits which cannot be surpassed by a land based vehicle in terms of speed, be it because of technological limitations or the laws of physics. 

Not the same can be said about the rather unseen part of the automotive evolution: brakes. The only limitations imposed to them are in connection with the human body's ability to withstand rapid decelerations. Otherwise, it would be a lot easier stopping a car than making it go insanely fast. 

Whether they come in the form of drum brakes, as was the case in the dawn of the automobile, or as discs, the brakes have been the horsepower's companion throughout the decades, each pulling the evolution of the car in different directions. 

Types of Brake

There are several types of brakes, but our goal here is not to present their features. We will only take you through a slow, slow journey to the beginning of the braking systems. As for who came up with the idea of a braking system, no individual person can be credited for it. As the saying goes, what goes up must come down, or to paraphrase it, what goes fast, must stop. It was only obvious that whoever made a moving object, devised a stopping system as well. So it's rather a matter of who brought what to the idea, than who actually invented it. 

·         Wooden Block

The early braking systems to be used in vehicles with steel rimmed wheels consisted of nothing more than a block of wood and a lever system. When he wanted to stop, the driver had to pull the lever located next to him and make the wooden block bear against the wheel. 

The method proved effective in both horse drawn or steam powered vehicles. It started becoming obsolete towards the end of the 1890s, when the Michelin brothers began replacing steel rimmed wheels with the rubber tire. The wood block method, needless to say, was useless in conjunction with rubber. 

·         Slowly Grinding to a Halt

The drum based braking system can be considered the forefather of the modern day break. A forefather who is still alive, as drum brakes are still in use today. 

The man largely credited with the development of the modern day drum brake is French manufacturer Louis Renault, in 1902. Still, crude concepts of the drum existed before that. Wilhelm Maybach had used a similar, yet simpler design a year earlier. Even prior to that, in 1899, Gottlieb Daimler came up with the idea to wrap a cable around a drum and anchor it to the vehicles chassis. The forward motion of the car tightened the cable, making it easier for the driver to pull the lever and get the wood block to do its work. What Daimler came up with is called servo assistance and is still in use today, with the required enhancements, obviously. 

These types of braking systems were all external, a feature which soon turned into a problem. Dust, heat and even water rendered them less effective. It was time for the internal expanding shoe brake. By placing the shoes inside the drum brake, dust and water were kept out, allowing the braking process to remain effective

·         Hydraulic Power

The end of the mechanically-activated brakes came in 1918, when Malcolm Loughead, one of the founders of what later was to become Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, came up with the idea. Loughead put together a four-wheel hydraulic-brake system for cars. This system used fluids to transfer the force on the pressed pedal to the pistons and then to the brake shoes. 

The four-wheel hydraulic system was first used on the 1918 Duesenberg and quickly caught on, mostly thanks to the fact that it made braking much easier than in a mechanical system. By late 1920s, this system was fitted on most high-priced vehicles and soon after it expanded to most of the automotive world. 

·         The Disc

As the vehicles spilled out the assembly plants, they started becoming both faster and heavier. Hydraulic drum based brakes were effective, but they had a tendency to ineffectively distribute heat. This feature made room for the creation of the disc braking system. 

Even if it came to be, basically, at around the same time with the drum brake system, the disc had to go a long way before getting a place in the spotlight. First patented in 1902 by William Lanchester, the disc became popular in the 1950s. 

Using the disc brake in conjunction with Loughead hydraulics, Chrysler became the first manufacturer to implement the system on its vehicles (Imperial). In Europe, the system was adopted by Jaguar (C-Type) and Citroen (DS).

Still, the system was dropped for a few years in the US, as it still required some significant effort from the driver to operate it. It was only in 1964 when it made its final comeback, featured on the Studebacker Avanti. This time it succeeded. 

The difference was made by the development of the power braking system. By assisting the movement of the piston in the master cylinder, the driver no longer had to apply as much pressure to get the car to stop effectively. 

·         ABS (Anti blockier system),  

The evolution of the brakes themselves has since slowed down. Additional systems though took off. ABS (Anti blockier system), electronic brake-force distribution (EBD), brake assist and many other systems have come to help braking become as effective and as safe as it can be. Still, the foundations first set in the early 1900s remain the basis for modern day brakes.

Disk Brake

A disc brake is a type of brake that uses calipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc in order to create friction that retards the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either to reduce its rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The energy of motion is converted into waste heat which must be dispersed. Hydraulic disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor vehicles but the principles of a disc brake are applicable to almost any rotating shaft.

Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance because the disc is more readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to the brake fade caused when brake components overheat. Disc brakes also recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective than dry ones).

Most drum brake designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By contrast, a disc brake has no self-servo effect and its braking force is always proportional to the pressure placed on the brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo, braking pedal, or lever. This tends to give the driver better "feel" and helps to avoid impending lockup. Drums are also prone to "bell mouthing" and trap worn lining material within the assembly, both causes of various braking problems.

The brake disc (or rotor in American English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To retard the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on the brake caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.

The development of disc-type brakes began in England in the 1890s, but they were not practical or widely available for another 60 years. Successful application required technological progress, which began to arrive in the 1950s, leading to a critical demonstration of superiority at the Le Mans auto race in 1953. The Jaguar racing team won, using disc brake equipped cars, with much of the credit being given to the brakes' superior performance over rivals from firms like Ferrari, equipped with drum brakes. Mass production quickly followed with the 1955 Citroën DS.

History of Disk Brake

Development of disc brakes began in England in the 1890s. The first caliper-type automobile disc brake was patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars. However, the limited choice of metals in this period meant that he had to use copper as the braking medium acting on the disc. The poor state of the roads at this time, no more than dusty, rough tracks, meant the copper wore quickly making the system impractical.

The American Crosley Hot Shot is often given credit for the first production disc brakes. For six months in 1950, Crosley built a car with these brakes, and then returned to drum brakes. Lack of sufficient research caused reliability problems, such as sticking and corrosion, especially in regions using salt on winter roads.  Drum brake conversions for Hot Shots were quite popular.  The Crosley disc was a Goodyear development, a caliper type with ventilated disc, originally designed for aircraft applications.  

Chrysler developed a unique braking system, offered from 1949 to 1953. Instead of the disc with caliper squeezing on it, this system used twin expanding discs that rubbed against the inner surface of a cast-iron brake drum, which doubled as the brake housing. The discs spread apart to create friction against the inner drum surface through the action of standard wheel cylinders. Because of the expense, the brakes were only standard on the Chrysler Crown and the Town and Country Newport in 1950. They were optional, however, on other Chryslers, priced around $400, at a time when an entire Crosley Hot Shot retailed for $935. This four-wheel disc brake system was built by Auto Specialties Manufacturing Company (Ausco) of St. Joseph, Michigan, under patents of inventor H.L. Lambert, and was first tested on a 1939 Plymouth. Chrysler discs were "self-energizing," in that some of the braking energy itself contributed to the braking effort. This was accomplished by small balls set into oval holes leading to the brake surface. When the disc made initial contact with the friction surface, the balls would be forced up the holes forcing the discs further apart and augmenting the braking energy. This made for lighter braking pressure than with calipers, avoided brake fade, promoted cooler running, and provided one-third more friction surface than standard Chrysler twelve-inch drums. Today's owners consider the Ausco-Lambert very reliable and powerful, but admit its grubbiness and sensitivity.

Types of Disk Brake

Instead of traditional expanding breaks that press outward against a circular drum. Disk break utilize a cast iron rotor (disk) with brake pads positioned on either side of it. Breaking effect is achieved in a manner similar to the way squeeze a spinning disk between fingers.

There are three types of disk brakes:

·         A Fixed caliper

·         A Floating Caliper

·         A Sliding Caliper

A Fixed caliper

It is used one or two pistons mounted on each side of the rotor (in each side of the caliper). The caliper mounted rigidly and does not move. The following Image shows in detailed,

A Floating Caliper

Floating caliber use threaded guide pins and bushing, or a sleeve to allow the caliper to side and apply the brake pads.

The working of disk Breaks

Let's take a look at the basic disc brake system and how it works...

The components:

• Master Cylinder
• Steel brake lines
• Proportioning valve
• Brake calipers
• Brake rotors or discs
• Brake pads, anti-rattle hardware, and siding mechanisms (IE: pins)

1. The master cylinder is mechanically connected to the brake pedal through a system of steel rods called linkage. These rods operate at different angles using bushings that are usually made of nylon, rubber, or Teflon. When you step on the brake pedal, the linkage pushes on a steel rod that pushes into the back of the master cylinder. The master cylinder is nothing more than an elaborate pump that forces break fluid through the braking system to energize the various components that stop your car.

2. The steel brake lines are the infrastructure that provides a pathway for the brake fluid to travel through to do its job.

3. The Proportioning valve measures and adjusts the amount of fluid that goes to the front Vs. back brakes, because each set of brakes require different volumes and pressures to equally brake and stop the car.

4. The brake calipers are nothing more than powerful "C" clamps that are actuated by hydraulic pressure which occurs when the driver depresses the brake pedal, creating hydraulic pressure within the system. The calipers have large pistons inside of them that, when brake fluid pushes behind them, are forced outward ... creating a clamping action on the pads, which are in contact with the rotors.

5. Brake rotors or discs are flat round steel discs that are attached to the car's wheels. The calipers straddle over them and, when the brake pedal is depressed, the calipers clamp down on them, causing the brake pads to make contact with the rotors, creating friction and thus stopping the car.

6. Attached to the calipers are brake pads. They are the friction material that is needed to stop the forward motion of the wheels. Specifically, these pads are made of steel backing with friction material affixed to it, either by the use of industrial grade glue or steel rivets. Anti-rattle hardware consists of spring-steel clips that are affixed to the brake pads to keep them in place on the brake caliper. Without this hardware, the pads would rattle, causing clicking and squealing noises when the wheels are in motion. The sliding mechanisms are usually pins upon which the calipers slide. They are attached to the steering knuckle in such a way as to position the brake calipers so that they straddle the disc with the pads attached to them. When the brake pedal is depressed, the hydraulic pressure generated within the system forces the piston within the caliper outward; this causes the brake pads to clamp onto the discs, creating the friction necessary to stop the forward motion of the wheels. The sliding mechanisms must be clean, lubricated, and moveable for the calipers to apply and release the brake pads on the discs.

 References. 

·         http://arrc.ebscohost.com/ebsco_static/repairips/8852.htm#8852CH26_Disc_Brakes.htm

·         https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_brake#Early_experiments

Forghing Trade Practice - Harmonized System

UA-29869588-1

“Commerce, trade and exchange make other people more valuable alive than dead, and mean that people try to anticipate what the other guy needs and wants. It engages the mechanisms of reciprocal altruism, as the evolutionary biologists call it, as opposed to raw dominance”.

                                                                        Steven Arthur Pinker (born September 18, 1954)

Introduction

International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP).  Trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to new markets and products. Almost every kind of product can be found on the international market: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewelry, wine, stocks, currencies and water. Services are also traded: tourism, banking, consulting and transportation. A product that is sold to the global market is an export, and a product that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the balance of payments. Harmonized System (HS) is for classifying goods is a six-digit code system in international Market.

The Harmonized System (HS) is an international nomenclature defined by the World Customs Organization (WCO) for the classification of products. It allows participating countries to classify traded goods on a common basis for customs purposes. At the international level, the Harmonized System for classifying goods is a six-digit code system.

The HS comprises approximately 5,000 article/product descriptions that appear as headings and subheadings, arranged in 96 chapters (Chapter 77 is reserved for future use) and grouped into 21 sections.

Of the six digits, the first two digits identify the chapter the good is classified in, e.g. 09 = Coffee, Tea, Maté and Spices. The first four digits identify the heading, a finer breakdown of the chapter, e.g. 09.02 = Tea, whether or not flavoured. The full six digits identify the sub-heading, and are even more specific, e.g. 09.02.10 = Green tea (not fermented). Up to the HS-6 digit level, all countries using the Harmonized System have the same codes.

History

As early as a century ago, the lack of uniformity between the many different classification systems that had grown up throughout the world had become a major concern. Since that time, several attempts have been made to create an international system of classification.

In 1950, the Customs Cooperation Council was formed in Brussels. Shortly thereafter, the classification system it developed, known as the Customs Cooperation Council Nomenclature, came into use. By 1970, it became apparent that this system would have to be revised both in order to make it usable by more countries and to ensure compatibility with modern, computerized methods of doing business. Thus the development of the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System began.

On January 1, 1988 most members of the WTO adopted the new Harmonized System. In the United States, the HTSUS (Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States) was enacted by subtitle B of title I of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988, and became effective on January 1, 1989 – replacing the TSUS (Tariff Schedules of the United States).

There are now more than 200 countries using the international Harmonized Tariff. So are they all the same? Yes, and No. Yes to the 6 digit level. No beyond that level. Before being adopted into law by a country, the WTO Harmonized System is augmented to accommodate particular national goals. For example, most add additional levels to provide a finer breakout of products. Duty rates and units of measurement are added — generally at the 8^th digit level, but often enough at the 10^th digit level.

Harmonized System 

The Harmonized System is an international nomenclature for the classification of products. It allows participating countries to classify traded goods on a common basis for customs purposes. At the international level, the Harmonized System (HS) for classifying goods is a six-digit code system.

Under the HS Convention, the contracting parties are obliged to base their tariff schedules on the HS nomenclature, although parties set their own rates of duty. The HS is organized into 21 sections and 96 chapters, accompanied with general rules of interpretation and explanatory notes. First, the system assigns goods to sections, and then proceeds to assign these goods to their specific chapter, heading, and subheading, in that order, as necessary. The HS therefore assigns up to a total of 8 digits at the tariff-rate (legal) level. Two extra digits may also be assigned as statistical reporting numbers for a total of 10 digits to be listed on entries.

To ensure harmonization, the contracting parties must employ at least 4- and 6-digit provisions, international rules and notes, but are free to adopt additional subcategories and notes. Chapter 77 is reserved for future international use only. Chapters 98 and 99 are reserved for national use. Chapter 98 comprises special classification provisions, and chapter 99 contains temporary modifications pursuant to a parties' national directive or legislation.

The system is used by more than 200 countries and economies as a basis for their Customs tariffs and for the collection of international trade statistics. Over 98 % of the merchandise in international trade is classified in terms of the HS. 

The HS contributes to the harmonization of Customs and trade procedures, and the non-documentary trade data interchange in connection with such procedures, thus reducing the costs related to international trade.

It is also extensively used by governments, international organizations and the private sector for many other purposes such as internal taxes, trade policies, monitoring of controlled goods, rules of origin, freight tariffs, transport statistics, price monitoring, quota controls, compilation of national accounts, and economic research and analysis. The HS is thus a universal economic language and code for goods, and an indispensable tool for international trade.

Importance

For Government

For government, a tariff classification system enables "uniform identification of imported and exported goods for purposes of duty and tax collection, enforcement of national laws and international treaties, analysis for economic and business planning, and international trade negotiations."

For Companies

For users of the tariff (importers and exporters of all types and sizes), correct classification is a legal responsibility. Non-compliance can mean shipment delays, increased inspections, fines, and other administrative penalties.

Correct classification often saves money, both in the short and long term. When examining a company's past imports, customs consultants find that overall, too much duty has been paid, indicating that full advantage of provisions of the tariff were not taken. Making use of these provisions requires a precise knowledge of the product to be classified, something that the importer or exporter has, as well as knowledge of the Tariff and the principles of classification, something readily know-able.

Whether goods are eligible for any of the special provisions of the Tariff that allow for lower duty rates usually depends on the use or purpose for which they are being imported, or on the availability of certificates of origin. Again, the importer is in the best position to know these facts.

Verifying the classification decisions of customs brokers and professional classification suppliers is a good way of protecting both compliance records and revenue outlay in the form of duties and taxes. By understanding how the tariff classification process works, importers will be able to work together with their classification provider (usually a customs broker or consultant) to ensure that their goods are classified correctly.

An international "Harmonized System" for the description and classification of goods was created in 1988, and soon after adopted by nations around the world. The broad, core specifics and structure of Harmonized System classifications is universal, with each participating country eligible to add and define specific detail items, and to create and assign rates of duty in any required categories for all classifications.

Reff; http://www.globaltariff.com/; retried on 3rd may 2015

HU codes are availbale @ https://www.foreign-trade.com/reference/hscode.htm

 Read More @ http://www.globaltariff.com/aboutHTS.cfm

Retail Service Quality Scale RSQS Model

UA-29869588-1

The retail environment today is changing more rapidly than ever before (Dabholkar, 1996). It is characterized by intensifying competition from both domestic and foreign companies, a spate of mergers and acquisitions, and more sophisticated and demanding customers who have great expectations related to their consumption experiences (Sellers, 1990; Smith, 1989). Existing research indicates that consumers satisfied with service quality are most likely to remain loyal (Wong and Sohal, 2003). Service quality is perceived as a tool to increase value for the consumer; as a means of positioning in a competitive environment (Mehta, Lalwani and Han, 2000). By satisfying customers through high quality service, business firms not only retain their current customers, but also increase their market share (Finn and Lamb, 1991). Many studies on service quality relied on service quality construct and scale by Parasuraman et al. (1988). However, this application to the retail industry may not be appropriate for service quality in retailing industry seems to be different from other services (Kaul, 2005; Dabholka et al, 1996). In retail setting, especially retail stores where there is a mix of product and service, retailers are likely to have impact on service quality more than on product quality (Dabholkar et al., 1996). As retailers can create such effects, service quality plays a significant strategic role in creating quality perceptions.

Service quality

Service quality is a critical component of customer perceptions about the service. Customers perceive services in terms of its quality and how satisfied they are overall with their experiences (Zeithaml, 2000). As thus, service quality is defined as customers’ perception of how well a service meets or exceeds their expectations (Czepiel, 1990). In the retail context, perceptions of service encounters accumulate over time and a customer’s relationship with an organization are a continuation of exchanges or interactions both past and present” (Czepiel, 1990). When customers evaluate retail service, they compare their perceptions of the service they receive with their expectations. Customers are satisfied when the perceived service meets or exceeds their expectations. They’re dissatisfied when they feel the service falls below their expectations (Levy and Weitz, 2005).

Service quality is consumers’ comparisons between service expectations and service performance (Parasuraman et al. (1985). In other words, service quality is “the degree and direction of discrepancy between consumer’s perceptions and expectations in terms of different but relatively important dimensions of the service quality, which can affect their future purchasing behaviour”. Service quality with reference to a product or service as “the consumer’s evaluative judgement about an entity’s overall excellence or superiority in providing desired benefits” (Arnauld et al. 2002). Service quality is perceived as a tool for increasing value for the consumer; as a means of positioning in a competitive environment (Mehta, Lalwani and Han, 2000) and for ensuring consumer satisfaction (Sivadas and Baker-Prewitt, 2000), retention, and patronage (Yavas, Bilgin and Shemwell, 1997).

As a gap or difference between customer ‘expectations’ and ‘perceptions’, service quality is viewed as lying along a continuum ranging from ‘ideal quality’ to ‘totally unacceptable quality,’ with some points along the continuum representing satisfactory quality. When perceived or experienced service is less than expected service, it implies less than satisfactory service quality. But, when perceived service is less than expected service, the obvious inference is that service quality is more than satisfactory Parasuraman, et al 1988). Service quality is one of the most influencing factors in a consumer’s purchase decision process. According to Buzell and Gale (1987) empirical research clearly shows the positive relationship between service quality and organisational performance. Using a large database with thousands of strategic business units, research shows that the most critical factor affecting a business unit’s performance is the service quality of its products and services as perceived by the market relative to the perception about its competitors.

From the previous definitions of service quality it is apparent that they include the perception and expectations of services. Perception of service is the customer’s opinion of the service or product (Foster, 2004) or the general judgment of a service which is affected by many factors such as the education level, background and others (O‘Neill & Palmer, 2003). Perception could be a one time or single perception of the company, such as an experience buying a product at a specific time, or an overall perception of the company based on many experiences with the organisation. The perception of service quality is not constant which means that it changes for many reasons such as time, culture, consumer taste and promotional activities of the company (Zeithaml, Bitner & Gremler, 2009).

SERVICE QUALITY MODELS

Most of the service quality models suggest a multidimensional conceptualisation of service quality that leads to the measurement of service quality from a consumer‘s perspective (Akinci, Atilgan-Inan & Aksoy, 2010; Martinez & Martinez, 2010). There is a need to have a clear understanding of the service quality models because they help managers to identify quality problems which leads them to plan programmes to improve the quality which in turn will lead to better performance (Ahmad et al., 2009; Seth, Deshmukh & Vrat, 2005). Two major schools of thought dominate the literature; the American school and the Nordic school (Caro & Garcia, 2007; Karatepe, Yavas & Babakus, 2005) and researchers generally adapt one of the two schools (Ahmad et al., 2009).

 Nordic School

The main contributor to the Nordic school service quality model is Gronroos’. This model is not as widely known as the American school (Kang & James, 2004; Woodall, 2001). As discussed earlier, Gronroos’ service quality model consists of three dimensions:

1. Technical quality

2. Functional quality

3. Image (Gronroos, 2007)

According to Gronroos, the customer can measure the outcome of service in an objective manner while, the functional quality of the service encounter is concerned with the interaction between the provider and recipient of a service and is often perceived in a subjective manner (Ghobadian et al., 1993). Moreover the corporate image will influence the perception of the customer towards the image of the service provider.

Lehtinen and Lehtinen (1991) also proposed three dimensions of service quality, which is another service quality model of the Nordic school (Athanassopoulos, 2000).

Following are the dimensions of service quality according to Lehtinen and Lehtinen (1991):

1. Physical quality

2. Corporate quality

3. Interactive quality

Physical quality is the quality that results from the physical element of the service. It includes the physical products (goods) that are consumed during the service process and this is usually evaluated in an objective manner, and physical support which aids the production of the service. The interactive quality is the interaction with the employees or any other elements of the service provider. This also includes interactions that customers have with each other. Finally, the corporate quality is the history of the organisation and the image people form about the organisation. The corporate quality takes time to evolve whereas the physical quality might improve faster depending on the improvements made by the organisation (Lehtinen & Lehtinen, 1991).

The North American School

The North American School is more widely known than the Nordic school, and it is based on Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry (1988) gap model (Prayag, 2007; O’Neill & Palmer, 2003). The American school, also known as the disconfirmation model, was developed in 1985 then later modified in 1988, 1991 and 1994 (Akbaba, 2006). The gap model is about giving managers the tools to improve service quality. In the GAP model, five gaps are identified, taking into consideration the possible discrepancies between the elements of the service management process.

Gap 1: Difference between consumer expectations and management                perceptions of consumer expectations.

Gap 2: Difference between management perceptions of consumer expectations and service quality specifications.

Gap 3: difference between service quality specifications and the service actually delivered.

Gap 4: difference between service delivery and what is communicated about the service to the consumer.

Gap 5: difference between consumer expectations and perceptions.

The Hierarchical Model

Brady & Cronin (2001) acknowledge that the American school and the Nordic school are the most adopted conceptualisation of service quality by researchers. They integrated the Nordic school model and the North American model into a new hierarchical model; they adapted the view of Rust & Oliver (1994) that perceived service quality depends on three dimensions; the customer employee interaction, the service environment and outcome. Brady & Cronin (2001) also adapted the view of Dabholkar, Thorpe & Rentz (1996) that service quality is a multidimensional and multilevel construct. Therefore, the model by Brady & Cronin (2001) integrates the conceptualisation of service quality by suggesting a service quality model with three dimensions. The three dimensions are:

1. Interaction quality

2. Physical environment quality

3. Outcome quality

Each of these dimensions consists of three sub-dimensions and the aggregate evaluation of the sub-dimensions forms the perception of that dimension. The combined perception of these dimensions leads to the overall service quality perception. The Brady & Cronin (2001) model is presented below.

BRADY AND CRONIN HIERARCHICAL MODEL

Further, Martinez & Martinez (2010) classifies the service quality models into three main models to help conceptualise service quality:

The multidimensional reflective model: This model is a multidimensional and a multi-level (hierarchal) model. This means that variation in the service quality construct causes variation in the dimensions and the variations in the dimensions causes variations in the sub dimensions. An example of this type is the retail service quality scale by Dabholkar, Thorpe & Rentz (1996).

Multidimensional formative models: These models are multidimensional models and they assume that variations in the dimensions cause variations in the service quality construct which is opposite to the reflective model. This model conceptualizes service quality as shaped by its dimension; this is different to the multidimensional reflective model which conceptualizes service quality as defined by its dimensions. Examples of this type of model are the SERVQUAL, SERVPERF and the Nordic model.

The Multidimensional formative-reflective models: This model is a combination of the formative and reflective models. This model is similar to the formative model, it conceptualizes service quality as formed by its dimensions and it is similar to the reflective model in that the dimensions are reflected by its sub-dimensions. An example of this type of model is Brady and Cronin hierarchical model.

SERVICE QUALITY MEASUREMENT

Service quality is defined as ‘a global judgment or attitude, relating to the overall superiority of the service’ (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry, 1988, p16). The measurement of service quality becomes vital for the industry to attain competitive advantage. Service quality knowledge   There are many retail service quality models. The main service quality models are SERVQUAL and GAP model by Parasuraman et al. (1988), SERVPERF by Cronin and Taylor (1992), Retail Service Quality Model by Dabholkar et al. (1996).

SERVQUAL and Gap Model: In 1980s, in the attempt to define service quality and develop a model of service quality, Parasuraman et al. conducted an exploratory investigation. The results showed that regardless of the type of service, consumers used basically the similar criteria in evaluating service quality (Parasuraman et al., 1985). They labeled those 10 criteria “service quality determinants”. Since then, service quality was defined through 10 dimensions: access, communication, competence, courtesy, credibility, reliability, responsiveness, security, tangibles and understanding/knowing the customer. Later, they were simplified into five dimensions including tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy. This model indicates that consumer perceptions of quality are influenced by five gaps occurring in the internal process of service delivery. The basic premise is that service quality can be defined by the difference between expected service and perceived service (Parasuraman et al, 1985). The first four are those on the service provider side of service. Gap 5 is related to the customer side of service. These gaps are (1) the difference between what customers expected and what management perceived customer expected; (2) the difference between management’s perceptions of customer expectations and the translation of those perceptions into service quality specifications; (3) the difference between actual service quality specifications and the delivery of those specifications to customer service actually delivered; (4) the difference between the services delivered to customers and the external communications about the service; and (5) the difference between customer expectations and perceptions. Although SERVQUAL has been applied in the study of different types of service industries, there are certain limitations and criticisms. Some of the widespread concerns are the 5 dimension configuration of the scale, the appropriateness of operationalizing service quality as the expectations-performances gap score, and the scale’s applicability to a retail setting (Bakakus and Boller, 1992; Finn and Lamb, 1991; Reeves and Bednar 1994).

SERVPERF: With an argument that Parasurman et al.’s gap theory of service quality was supported by little empirical or theoretical evidence, Cronin and Taylor (1992) developed a "performance-based" service quality measurement scale called SERVPERF. The major difference between these two scales is that SERVQUAL operationalises service quality by comparing the perceptions of the service received with expectations, while SERVPERF maintains only the perceptions of service quality. The SERVPERF scale consists of 22 perception items excluding any consideration of expectations. The superiority of SERVPERF over SERVQUAL has been demonstrated in numerous studies including those by Avkiran (1999), Lee et al. (2000) and Brady et al. (2002). However, the continued use of and reference to SERVQUAL in marketing literature suggest that “consensus has not yet been reached relative to the superiority of performance-only measures of service quality” (Brady et al. 2002, p. 18).

Retail Service Quality Scale (RSQS): Similar to and originating from the SERVPERF, the RSQS is a performance based measure of service quality but specific to the retail context. To contextually fit the retail industry, Dabholkar et al. (1996) developed Retail Service Quality Model (RSQS). Based on SERVPERF, RSQS includes 28-item scale, of which 17 items are from SERVPERF and 11 items are developed by qualitative research. It composes of 5 dimensions, namely (1) Physical aspects – Retail store appearance and store layout; (2) Reliability – Retailers keep their promises and do the right things; (3) Personal interaction – Retail store personnel are courteous, helpful, and inspire confidence in customers; (4) Problem solving – Retail store personnel are capable to handle returns and exchanges, customers’ problems and complaints; and (5) Policy – Retail store’s      policy on merchandise quality, parking, operation hours, and credit cards. Retail Service Quality Scale (RSQS) developed in the U.S. for applicability to Indian retail. This scale has been found appropriate in a variety of settings – across different countries such as South Africa and Singapore and across a variety of store types such as supermarkets, department stores and hyper stores. The RSQS model is also applicable to Indian scenario (Subhashini Kaul, 2005).

Customer Loyalty

Customer loyalty is defined as repeated purchasing and referring a company to other customers (Heskett et al., 1997), generating positive and measurable financial results (Duffy, 2003). Pearson (1996) has defined customer loyalty as the mind-set of the customers who hold favourable attitudes toward a company, commit to repurchase the company’s product/service, and recommend the product/service to others. In other words, customer loyalty is the degree to which a customer exhibit repeat purchasing behaviour from a service provider possesses a positive attitudinal disposition toward the provider, and considers using only this provider when a need for this service exists.

Loyalty is developed over a period of time from a consistent record of meeting, and sometimes even exceeding customer expectations (Teich, 1997). Improvements in retention and increase in the share of the company are the obvious economic benefits of customer loyalty. Customer loyalty is an indispensable performance measurement tool for profit as well as non-profit organisations to sustain competitive advantage (Kotler, 1998) and to enhance business/service performance measures. Therefore, loyalty is essential for the organisation because it is cheaper to retain its old customers than to find new customers; in addition to this customer retention is linked to the company’s profit. Customer loyalty (or the absence of it) is exhibited both through customer behaviour and also through attitude.

The customer loyalty as “the market place currency of the twenty-first century” suggested by Singh and Sirdeshmukh (2000). Customer loyalty is concerned with the likelihood of customer returning, making business referrals, providing strong word-of-mouth references and publicity (Bowen and Shoemaker, 1998). Loyal customers are less likely to switch to a competitor due to price inducement, and these customers make more purchases compared to less loyal customers (Baldinger and Rubinson, 1996). However, customers who are retained may not always be satisfied and satisfied customers may not always be retained. Customers may be loyal due to high switching barriers or the lack of real alternatives, customers may also be loyal because they are satisfied, thus wanting to continue with the relationship.

People become loyal customers in stages, according to Griffin (1995) and Vavra (1995). In the first stage, the prospective customer becomes a suspect, who may be anyone that might buy the product or service. In the second stage, a prospect must have a need for the product or service. In the third stage, the customer is a disqualified prospect as the company has discovered that the customer does not need the product or does not have the ability to buy the product. First-time customers are those who have bought once and repeat customers have bought twice or more. A client purchases regularly and retailer has on-going relationship with this customer. The customer as advocate is the last stage. An advocate purchases regularly as a client, but additionally encourages others to buy from the company. An inactive customer has bought from the company, but has not purchased from the company for a period that is longer than the normal purchase cycle (Griffin, 1995).

Jacoby and Chestnut (1978) have explored the psychological meaning of loyalty in an effort to distinguish it from behavioral (i.e., repeat purchase) definitions. Their analysis concludes that consistent purchasing as an indicator of loyalty could be invalid because of happenstance buying or a preference for convenience and that inconsistent purchasing could mask loyalty if consumers were multi-brand loyal. More specifically, all three decision making phases must point to a focal brand preference if true brand loyalty exists. Thus, (1) the brand attribute ratings (beliefs) must be preferable to competitive offerings, (2) this “information” must coincide with an affective preference (attitude) for the brand, and (3) the consumer must have a higher intention (conation) to buy the brand compared with that for alternatives.

In marketing literature, the word loyalty is used in at least three different senses:

a) As transactional retention: Customers or employees are retained to act repeatedly in favour of the company’s interests in exchange for something attractive. This, for example, is what happens when newspapers include collectible items so that buyers will not cease to purchase the same newspaper, or when businesses or commercial chains offer certain advantages to customers who make repeat purchases in the same establishment or chain. Managers and employees are also retained by the firm by means of economic compensation or other personal or family perks.

b) As sentimental attraction: This is present when someone more or less habitually chooses a certain product or brand because he likes it, or because it inspires a feeling of confidence: the man, for instance, who always buys the same newspaper because he enjoys it, has grown accustomed to it, or because its editorial line appeals to him. This kind of “loyalty” is also generated when one works for a company that he finds comfortable, or trustworthy. This feeling may arise in very different ways. One of these is “falling in love” with a business when one notices how it takes a genuine interest in intelligently meeting a customer’s or employee’s needs. This leads a person to believe that he can place his trust in it.

c) As willingness to commit oneself: This is the case when a person understands that he ought to dedicate his activity perseveringly to a person, cause, or institution that he considers valuable and to which he has made some sort of commitment. In contrast to transactional retention, which corresponds to an instrumental, calculating, self-interested rationality, loyalty understood as willingness to commit is based on a deliberately created bond that obliges the person to maintain this commitment. Such loyalty is considered intrinsically valuable. This understanding of loyalty is also distinct from a mere sentimental attraction or reflexive habit, which occurs without reflection or responsible decision. Every company makes effort to transform its first time customer into a life time buyer. Below are the reasons:

·         Sales go up because the customer is buying more from XYZ

·         Strengthen XYZ’s position in the marketplace when customers are buying from XYZ instead of its competitors

·         Marketing costs go down when XYZ don’t have to spend money to attract a repeat customer, since XYZ already have him. In addition, as a satisfied customer he tells his friends thereby decreasing XYZ’s need to advertise.

·         XYZ is insulated from price competition because a loyal customer is less likely to be lured away by a discount of a few rupees.

·         Finally, a happy customer is likely to sample XYZ other product lines thus helping XYZ in achieving a larger share of customer.

Today’s companies must manage a strange paradox: in the race to win market share and its promise of profit, a company risks (and often loses) the highest margin customers and in doing so worsens profitability rather than improving it. A company interested in building a solid, loyal customer base uses an approach different from that of a company interested in simply building market share. Loyalty building requires the company to emphasize the value of its products or services and to show that it is interested in building a relationship with the customer. The company recognizes that its business is to build a stable customer base rather than make a single sale.