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Wednesday 18 July 2012

Operating Systems

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Operating Systems
An operating system, or OS, is a software program that enables the computer hardware to communicate and operate with the computer software. Without a computer operating system, a computer would be useless.
Unix ABCs
Unix, which is not an acronym, was developed by some of the members of the Multics team at the bell labs starting in the late 1960's by many of the same people who helped create the C programming language. The Unix today, however, is not just the work of a couple of programmers. Many other organizations, institutes and various other individuals contributed significant additions to the system we now know today.
Linux ABCs
Developed by Linus Torvalds and further elaborated by a number of developers throughout the world, Linux (lee'nuhks/ or /li'nuks/,_not_/li:'nuhks) is a freely available multitasking and multiuser operating system. From the outset, Linux was placed under General Public License (GPL). The system can be distributed, used and expanded free of charge. In this way, developers have access to all the source codes, thus being able to integrate new functions or to find and eliminate programming bugs quickly. Thereby drivers for new adapters (SCSI controller, graphics cards, etc.) can be integrated very rapidly.
MS-DOS3
Short for Microsoft Disk operating system, MS-DOS is a non-graphical command line operating system derived from 86-DOS that was created for IBM compatible computers. MS-DOS originally written by Tim Paterson and introduced by Microsoft in August 1981 and was last updated in 1994 when MS-DOS 6.22 was released. Today, MS-DOS is no longer used; however, the command shell, more commonly known as the Windows command lineis still used by many users. In the picture to the right, is an example of what a MS-DOS window more appropriately referred to as the Windows command line looks like under Microsoft Windows.
Today, most computer users are only familiar with how to navigate Microsoft Windows using the mouse. Unlike Windows, MS-DOS is a command-line and is navigated by using MS-DOS commands. For example, if you wanted to see all the files in a folder in Windows you would double-click the folder to open the folder in Windows Explorer. In MS-DOS, to view that same folder you would navigate to the folder using the cd command and then list the files in that folder using the dir command.
OS/2
Jointly developed by Microsoft and IBM to operate with Intel microprocessors, OS/2 was originally a 16-bitoperating system that was designed to work with 286 processors and first introduced in 1987. OS/2 later became a graphical interface similar to Windows, but also supported a command line. In fact, many OS/2 and DOS commands are the same.
 In 1992, a new 32-bit version was released for 386 and above PCs and was solely an IBM product. Later in 1994, IBM released a version it called OS/2 Warp that included Internet access and additional features. At the same time, Microsoft was working on OS/2 version 3.0; however, it later became Microsoft Windows NT.
OS/2 never became as popular as the other Microsoft operating systems, and software developers never created a substantial number of programs to run primarily under OS/2. Although some computer experts say later versions of OS/2 are superior to Windows, Windows and the number of products created for it greatly outnumber OS/2 programs.
IBM officially announces on July 14, 2005 that all sales of OS/2 will end on December 23, 2005 and that all support from IBM for OS/2 will end on December 16, 2005.
Windows CE ABCs
Microsoft Windows CE 1.0 was originally released in 1996 to compete in the Palm Device Assistant Category. Windows CE, as shown below, has many of the same features as Windows 95.
 In addition to the look of Windows 95, Windows CE also includes similar applications such as Pocket Excel, Pocket Word, and Pocket Power.

Microsoft Windows 3.1 and 3.11

Released in 1990, Microsoft Windows 3.0 was a revolutionary operating system for the PC as one of the most used GUI operating systems.

 Later Windows 3.1 was released in 1992 by Microsoft and was one of the first major PC GUI operating systems widely used. Windows 3.1 allowed users to utilize several features previously not available in MS-DOS. Some of these new features were the use of a mouse that allowed the user to navigate and manipulate data on the computer with one hand and now did not have to memorize MS-DOS commands. In addition to the mouse, Windows now allowed the user to multitask, meaning the user could now run multiple applications at once without having to close out of each program before running another. Windows along with other GUI operating systems are one of the many reasons computers have become easier and more widely used

Microsoft Windows 95


The next instalment of Windows from Windows 3.11 is Windows 95. Windows 95 added major enhancements when compared to Windows 3.11.

Windows 98
Microsoft Windows 98 is the upgrade to Microsoft Windows 95. While this was not as big as release as Windows 95, Windows 98 has significant updates, fixes and support for new peripherals.
Windows ME
Windows Millennium, also known as Windows ME, was introduced September 14, 2000 to the general public as the upgrade for Windows 95 and Windows 98 users and is designed for end-users. Overall, Windows ME has the look and feel of Windows 98 with some additional fixes and features not available in previous operating systems.
While Windows ME includes some of the latest fixes and updates and some enticing new features, we recommend this update only for users that may find or want some of the new features listed below or for users who are purchasing a new computer with this operating system included.
Windows NT
Windows NT 4.0 has the look and feel of Windows 95; however, it is a completely different operating system. Windows NT contains advanced security features, advanced network support, full 32-bit operating system, advanced multitasking, user administration and much more. While NT is a very advanced operating system, it does lack the support of drivers, features, and gaming support when compared to Windows 95 and Windows 98 and is why, even today, Windows NT is still used primarily by businesses and technical users.
Windows 2000
Windows 2000 is based of the Windows NT Kernel and is sometimes referred to as Windows NT 5.0. Windows 2000 contains over 29 Million lines of code, mainly written in C++. 8 Million of those lines alone are written for drivers. Currently, Windows 2000 is by far one of the largest commercial projects ever built.

Microsoft Windows XP
Codenamed Whistler, Microsoft Windows XP is short for Windows Experienced and is the convergence of the two major Microsoft operating systems into one.
Windows Vista
Microsoft Windows Vista is an upgrade to Microsoft Windows XP and Windows 2000 users. Windows Vista contains a dramatic new look for users used to previous versions of Microsoft Windows that has been designed to help create an overall better experience.


Windows 7
Unlike Windows Vista, which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already compatible. Presentations given by Microsoft in 2008 focused on multi-touch support, a redesigned Windows shell with a new taskbar, referred to as the Superbar, a home networking system called HomeGroup, and performance improvements. Some standard applications that have been included with prior releases of Microsoft Windows, including Windows Calendar, Windows Mail, Windows Movie Maker, and Windows Photo Gallery, are not included in Windows 7 most are instead offered separately at no charge as part of the Windows Live Essentials suite






 


Co-operative movement (Co- Operative Socities)


Co-operative movement
       A cooperative (also co-operative or co-op) is a business organization owned and operated by a group of individuals for their mutual benefit. A cooperative is defined by the International Cooperative Alliance's Statement on the Cooperative Identity as "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise". A cooperative may also be defined as a business owned and controlled equally by the people who use its services or by the people who work there. Various aspects regarding cooperative enterprise are the focus of study in the field of cooperative economics.
       Cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefit. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, only trading with the external communities. In alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1473. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context.
       In 1761, the Fenwick Weavers' Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, and Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education. In 1810, Welsh social reformer Robert Owen, from Newtown in mid-Wales, and his partners purchased New Lanark mill from Owen's father-in-law David Dale and proceeded to introduce better labour standards including discounted retail shops where profits were passed on to his employees. Owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop co-op ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, although ultimately unsuccessful. In 1828, William King set up a newspaper, The Cooperator, to promote Owen's thinking, having already set up a co-operative store in Brighton.
       The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is usually considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern co-ops, following the 'Rochdale Principles'. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford. Within ten years there were over 1,000 cooperative societies in the United Kingdom.
Other events such as the founding of a friendly society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor and consumer movements.
       The co-operative movement began in Europe in the 19th century, primarily in Britain and France, although The Shore Porters Society claims to be one of the world's first cooperatives, being established in Aberdeen in 1498 (although it has since demutualized to become a private partnership). The industrial revolution and the increasing mechanization of the economy transformed society and threatened the livelihoods of many workers. The concurrent labour and social movements and the issues they attempted to address describe the climate at the time.
       The first documented consumer cooperative was founded in 1769, in a barely furnished cottage in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, when local weavers manhandled a sack of oatmeal into John Walker's whitewashed front room and began selling the contents at a discount, forming the Fenwick Weavers' Society.
       In the decades that followed, several cooperatives or cooperative societies formed including Lennoxtown Friendly Victualling Society, founded in 1812.
       By 1830, there were several hundred co-operatives. Some were initially successful, but most cooperatives founded in the early 19th century had failed by 1840. However, Lockhurst Lane Industrial Co-operative Society (founded in 1832 and now Heart of England Co-operative Society), and Galashiels and Hawick Co-operative Societies (1839 or earlier, merged with The Co-operative Group) still trade today.
       It was not until 1844 when the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers established the ‘Rochdale Principles’ on which they ran their cooperative, that the basis for development and growth of the modern cooperative movement was established.
       Financially, credit unions were invented in Germany in the mid-19th century, first by Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch (1852, urban), then by Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (1864, rural). While Schulze-Delitzsch is chronologically earlier, Raiffeisen has proven more influential over time – see history of credit unions. In Britain, the friendly society, building society, and mutual savings bank were earlier forms of similar institutions.

 Types of co-operatives

v  Housing cooperative

       A housing cooperative is a legal mechanism for ownership of housing where residents either own shares (share capital co-op) reflecting their equity in the cooperative's real estate, or have membership and occupancy rights in a not-for-profit cooperative (non-share capital co-op), and they underwrite their housing through paying subscriptions or rent.
Housing cooperatives come in three basic equity structures
  • In Market-rate housing cooperatives, members may sell their shares in the cooperative whenever they like for whatever price the market will bear, much like any other residential property. Market-rate co-ops are very common in New York City.
  • Limited equity housing cooperatives, which are often used by affordable housing developers, allow members to own some equity in their home, but limit the sale price of their membership share to that which they paid.
  • Group equity or Zero equity housing cooperatives do not allow members to own equity in their residences and often have rental agreements well below market rates.

v  Building cooperative

       Members of a building co-operative (in Britain known as a self-build housing cooperative) pool resources to build housing, normally using a high proportion of their own labour. When the building is finished, each member is the sole owner of a homestead, and the cooperative may be dissolved.
This collective effort was at the origin of many of Britain's building societies, which however developed into "permanent" mutual savings and loan organisations, a term which persisted in some of their names (such as the former Leeds Permanent). Nowadays such self-building may be financed using a step-by-step mortgage which is released in stages as the building is completed.

v  Utility cooperative

       A utility cooperative is a type of consumers' cooperative that is tasked with the delivery of a public utility such as electricity, water or telecommunications services to its members. Profits are either reinvested into infrastructure or distributed to members in the form of "patronage" or "capital credits", which essentially dividends are paid on a member's investment into the cooperative. In the United States, many cooperatives were formed to provide rural electrical and telephone service as part of the New Deal. See Rural Utilities Service.
In the case of electricity, cooperatives are generally either generation and transmission (G&T) co-ops that create and send power via the transmission grid or local distribution co-ops that gather electricity from a variety of sources and send it along to homes and businesses.
In Tanzania, it has been proven that the cooperative method is helpful in water distribution. When the people are involved with their own water, they care more because the quality of their work has a direct effect on the quality of their water.

v  Agricultural cooperative

       Agricultural cooperatives or farmers' cooperatives are cooperatives where farmers pool their resources for mutual economic benefit. Agricultural cooperatives are broadly divided into agricultural service cooperatives, which provide various services to their individual farming members, and agricultural production cooperatives, where production resources such as land or machinery are pooled and members farm jointly. Agricultural production cooperatives are relatively rare in the world, and known examples are limited to collective farms in former socialist countries and the kibbutzim in Israel.
       Agricultural supply cooperatives aggregate purchases, storage, and distribution of farm inputs for their members. By taking advantage of volume discounts and utilizing other economies of scale, supply cooperatives bring down members' costs. Supply cooperatives may provide seeds, fertilizers, chemicals, fuel, and farm machinery. Some supply cooperatives also operate machinery pools that provide mechanical field services (e.g., plowing, harvesting) to their members.
       Agricultural marketing cooperatives provide the services involved in moving a product from the point of production to the point of consumption. Agricultural marketing includes a series of inter-connected activities involving planning production, growing and harvesting, grading, packing, transport, storage, food processing, distribution and sale. Agricultural marketing cooperatives are often formed to promote specific commodities.

v  Credit unions and cooperative banking

        Credit unions are cooperative financial institutions that are owned and controlled by their members. Credit unions provide the same financial services as banks but are considered not-for-profit organizations and adhere to cooperative principles.
       Credit unions originated in mid-19th century Germany through the efforts of pioneers Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch and Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen. The concept of financial cooperatives crossed the Atlantic at the turn of the 20th century, when the caisse populaire movement was started by Alphonse Desjardins in Quebec, Canada. In 1900, from his home in Lévis, he opened North America's first credit union, marking the beginning of the Mouvement Desjardins. Eight years later, Desjardins provided guidance for the first credit union in the United States, where there are now about 7,950 active status federally insured credit unions, with almost 90 million members and more than $679 billion on deposit.
       While they have not taken root so deeply as in Ireland, credit unions are also established in the UK. The largest are work-based, but many are now offering services in the wider community. The Association of British Credit Unions Ltd (ABCUL) represents the majority of British Credit Unions. British Building Societies developed into general-purpose savings & banking institutions with "one member, one vote" ownership and can be seen as a form of financial cooperative (although nine 'de-mutualised' into conventionally owned banks in the 1980s & 1990s). The UK Co-operative Group includes both an insurance provider CIS and the Co-operative Bank, both noted for promoting ethical investment.
       Other important European banking cooperatives include the Crédit Agricole in France, Migros and Coop Bank in Switzerland and the Raiffeisen system in many Central and Eastern European countries. The Netherlands, Spain, Italy and various European countries also have strong cooperative banks. They play an important part in mortgage credit and professional (i.e. farming) credit.
       Cooperative banking networks, which were nationalized in Eastern Europe, work now as real cooperative institutions. A remarkable development has taken place in Poland, where the SKOK (Spóldzielcze Kasy Oszczednosciowo-Kredytowe) network has grown to serve over 1 million members via 13,000 branches, and is larger than the country’s largest conventional bank.

 

v  Federal or secondary cooperatives

       In some cases, cooperative societies find it advantageous to form cooperative federations in which all of the members are themselves cooperatives. Historically, these have predominantly come in the form of cooperative wholesale societies, and cooperative unions. Cooperative federations are a means through which cooperative societies can full fill the sixth Rochdale Principle, cooperation among cooperatives, with the ICA noting that "Cooperatives serve their members most effectively and strengthen the cooperative movement by working together through local, national, regional and international structures."

v  Cooperative wholesale society

       According to cooperative economist Charles Gide, the aim of a cooperative wholesale society is to arrange “bulk purchases, and, if possible, organise production.”  The best historical example of this were the English CWS and the Scottish CWS, which were the forerunners to the modern Co-operative Group.

v  Cooperative Union

       A second common form of cooperative federation is a cooperative union, whose objective (according to Gide) is “to develop the spirit of solidarity among societies and... in a word, to exercise the functions of a government whose authority, it is needless to say, is purely moral.” Co-operatives UK and the International Cooperative Alliance are examples of such arrangements.
       In some countries with a strong cooperative sector, such as the UK, cooperatives may find it advantageous to form a parliamentary political party to represent their interests. The British Cooperative Party and the Canadian Cooperative Commonwealth Federation are prime examples of such arrangements.
Types of Cooperatives
An old and widespread form is the consumers' cooperative, in which people organize for wholesale or retail distribution, usually of agricultural or other staple products. Traditionally, membership is open, and anyone may buy stock. Goods are sold to the public as well as to members, usually at prevailing market prices, and any surplus above expenses is turned back to the members. Money is saved through direct channelling of goods from producer to consumer. Producers' cooperatives are manufacturing and distributive organizations commonly owned and managed by the workers. Another development in such cooperatives has been the acquisition of failing manufacturing plants by labour unions, who run them on a cooperative basis. Agricultural cooperatives usually involve cooperation in the processing and marketing of produce and in the purchase of equipment and supplies. Actual ownership of land is usually not affected, and in this way the agricultural cooperative differs from the collective farm. Agricultural cooperatives are often linked with cooperative banks and credit unions, which constitute another important type of cooperative. There is also cooperative activity in insurance, medical services, housing, and other fields.
The history of co-operative movement in India
“I know of no other instrument as potentially powerful and full of social purpose as the co-operative movement”                                                                                                      
                                                     -Smt. Indira Gandhi
Background
Even before formal cooperative structures came into being through the passing of a law, the practice of the concept of cooperation and cooperative activities were prevalent in several parts of India. Village communities collectively creating permanent assets like village tanks or village forests called Devarai or Vanarai was fairly common. Similarly, instances of pooling of resources by groups, like foodgrains after harvest to lend to needy members of the group before the next harvest, or collecting small contributions in cash at regular intervals to lend to members of the group viz., Chit Funds, in the erstwhile Madras Presidency, “Kuries” in Travancore, “Bhishies” in Kolhapur etc. were to be found. The “Phads” of Kolhapur where farmers impounded water by putting up bunds and agreed to ensure equitable distribution of water, as well as harvesting and transporting of produce of members to the market, and the “Lanas” which were yearly partnerships of peasants to cultivate jointly, and distribute the harvested produce in proportion to the labour and bullock power contributed by their partners, were similar instances of cooperation.
The agricultural conditions and absence of institutional arrangements to provide finance to agriculturists during the latter part of the nineteenth century led to mounting distress and discontent. The Famine Commission of 1880 and 20 years later, the Famine Commission 1901 both highlighted the deep indebtedness of the Indian farmer, resulting in many cases in his land passing into the possession of the money lending classes. The Deccan Riots and the prevailing environment of discontent resulted in the government taking various initiatives but the legislative measures did not substantially improve the situation.
The proposal for agricultural banks was first mooted in 1858 and again in 1881 by Mr.William Wedderburn the District Judge of Ahmednagar, in consultation with Justice M.G. Ranade, but was not accepted. In March 1892, Mr. Frederick Nicholson was placed by the Governor of Madras Presi­dency (for enquiring into the possibility) of introducing in this Presidency, a system of agricultural or other land banks and submitted his report in two volumes in 1895 and 1897.
In 1901 the Famine Commission recommended the establishment of Rural Agricultural Banks through the establishment of Mutual Credit Associations, and such steps as were taken 6 High Powered Committee on Cooperatives by the Government of North Western provinces and Oudh. The underlying idea of a number of persons combining together was the voluntary creation of a new and valuable security. A strong association competent to offer guarantees and advantages of lending to groups instead of individu­als were major advantages. The Commission also suggested the principles underlying Agricultural Banks.
The history of co-operative movement in India is broadly divided into two phases. That means co-operative movement has passed into two phases. They are-
1) Co –operative movement in pre-independence era.
2) Co-operative movement in post–independence era.
These two phases are briefly discussed below:
Ø  Co-operative Movement in pre-independence era:
       The pages of Indian history cite many evidences of co-operative activities from earliest times. However, the first recorded activity began in 1904 when this movement was officially set up by the British Government. Before that, in the year 1892, Derrick Nicholson tried to find out ways and means to establish institutions so as to help the agricultural sector. He gave the suggestions for setting of co-operative societies. Within that decade, India faced a terrible famine in 1899.
The Government appointed the Second Famine Commission 1901 to suggest measures for the victims. The commission recommended for a number of development activities and setting up of new institution. The most important among them was the strong recommendation for organisation of co-operative societies. The Government had accepted many of the recommendations and in 1904 “co operative societies Act” were passed. The aim was to help the rural farmers and artisans by providing short term and long term loans.
These credit societies were organised on the basis of two models, one for rural area and other for urban area. For the former these were organised on Reinfusion Model while for the latter it was Schulze Delitzsch Bank Model. Due to this Act a number of Co-operative Societies grew up in rural area, but they could not function effectively. The major defects were.
 1)    There was no provision for setting up of Non credit Co-operative Societies in rural area.
 2)    No special Central agency was created for financing and supervising the activities of these societies.
 3)    The division of the Credit Co-operative Societies into two types rural and urban stood as a barrier since no specific arrangements could be done for either due to the overlapping nature of such classification.
      The year 1928 saw a worldwide economic depression. The prices of agricultural commodities fell down to a great extent and unemployment along with other economic crisis grew up. The creditors had no way to repay the loan. This brought many co-operative societies in to a standstill position.
       In year 1933, the Reserve Bank of India was set up. The bank took some initiative to recognise the co-operative movement. It had a separate department for a co-operative credit. It helped to keep the movement alive which was gradually decaying.
In 1937, the popular Congress Government came to power in several states. The popular leaders took much more initiative in organising and extending this movement. But much progress could not do due to outbreak of Second World War. During this time, the ministry resigned. It was left in the hands of British Government again. But the war itself gave a boost to co-operative societies. The war brought a sudden increase in the prices of agricultural products and other food grains.
The rural farmer got extra economic gains. Non credit societies grew up. The working capital of co-operative societies also increased. The number of different credit and non credit co-operatives increased rapidly. The co-operative movement gathered momentum. The all India Co-operative planning Committee in 1945 also worked al lot in this direction.
Ø  Co-operative movement in Post independence Era:
After independence for the first 3 years no significant development could be made. It was mainly due to the problem created by partition and absence of concrete programme for national re-organisation. However, the leaders of free India could the importance of co-operative movement for a successful democracy importance was given to strengthen co-operative structure of country and various provisions were made through different Five Year Plan.
The co-operative movement completed its 50 years dump the first plan. The Golden Jubilee was celebrated throughout the country with much excitement. This made the people feel the importance of such a movement. Attention was given to utilise the credit in productive activities.
The First Plan also recommended for training of personnel's and setting up of Co-operative Marketing Societies.
The Second Plan laid down proposals for extending co operative activity into various fields. It gave special emphasis on the warehousing co operatives at the State and Central level.
The Third Plan brought still new areas under Co operative societies. The co operative society for sugarcane, cotton, spinning, milk supply was proposed. Some concrete steps were taken to train the personnel's. The co operative training College at Pune and many regional centres were established to train the workers.
The Fourth Plan emphasised for consolidation of co operative system. The new programme for high yielding crops was started. Different credit societies were organised to serve these programmes.
The Fifth Plan made special provisions for improvement of Central Banks and no viable primary agricultural societies, re organising marketing as well as consumer societies. It also recommended for establishment of Farmer’s Service Societies.
The Sixth Plan laid down a point programme for co-operative societies. It aimed at transforming the primary village societies to multipurpose societies.
 1)    To reconstruct the policies and of co-operative so that it can bring about economic development of people.
 2)    To extend co-operative activities to the fields of food processing, poultry farming, dairy farming, fishery and many other related fields.
 3)    To give necessary training and guidance for developing skilled the efficient personnel's.
The Seventh Plan has also given more importance on the growth and expansion of co operative societies to ensure public participation to achieve its main objective i.e. the movement towards social justice has to be faster and there must be a sharper focus on employment and poverty alleviation.
In 2004, the Co-operative Movement of India completed a hundred years of its existence. Over the years, it has several achievements to its credit in almost all sectors of the economy. How­ever, the problems and challenges resulting from years of control by Government, growing out of initial support and partnership by the state as well as arising out of the economic realities thrown up by the opening up of the economy and consequential impacts of globalization in the economy, have been many.
CO-OPERATIVES IN KERALA
 Definition
A Co-operative is an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprises
Values
Co-operative are based on the self-help responsibility, democracy, equity and solidarity. In the tradition of their founders, Co-operative members believe in the ethical values of honesty, openness, social responsibility and caring for others.
Principles
The co-operative principles are guidelines by which co-operative put their value in the practice.
First principle: Voluntary and open membership:
Co-operatives are voluntary organisations, open to all person able to use their service and willing accept the responsibilities of membership, without gender, social, racial, political or religious discrimination.
Second Principle: Democratic member control
Co-operatives are democratic organisations controlled by their members who actively participate in setting their policies and making decisions. Men and women serving as elected representatives are accountable to the membership. In primary Co-operative, members have equal voting rights. (One member, one vote) and co-operative at other levels are also organised in democratic manner.
Third Principle: Member Economic Participation
Members contribute equitably to, and democratically control, the capital of their co-operative. A least part of that capital is usually the common property of the co-operatives. Members usually receive limited compensation, if any on capitals subscribed as a condition of membership. Members allocate surpluses for any of the following purposes; developing their co-operative, possible by setting up reserves, part which at least would be indivisible, benefitting members in proportion to their transaction with the co-operative and sopporting other activities approved by the membership.
Fourth Principles: Autonomy And Independence
Co-operative and autonomous, self help organisation controlled by their members, if they entire in agreement with other organisations, including governments, or raise capital from external sources, they do so on terms that ensure democratic controlled by their members and maintain their co-operative autonomy.
Fifth Principle: Education Training and Information
Co-operative provide education and training for their members, elected representatives, managers and employees and can contribute defectively to development of their co-operatives. They inform the general public particularly young people and opinion leaders about the nature and benefit of co-operation.
Sixth Principle: Co-Operation among Co-Operatives
Co-operatives serve their members most effectively and strengthen the co-operative movements by working together through local, regional, national and international structure.
Seventh Principle: Concern for Community
Co-operative work for sustainable development of their communities through polices approved by their members.
History
The British East India Company miserably exploited India by absorbing all her resources during pre-independent period. After independence earnest steps were taken to make her healthy in every respect. It was generally admitted by the Architects of India that co-operatives can act as an effective media for the socio-economic reconstruction of the country. Hence attempts were made by the Planning Commission to develop the co-operative movement as a self reliant one by augmenting the resources through mobilisation of savings in urban and rural areas, promoting integrated rural development by strengthening the links between credit, supply of inputs, processing, marketing and distribution of essential commodities and developing of weaker sections of the community.
The growth of Co-operative movement in Kerala was insignificant during pre-independent era. Only 1669 co-operatives were functioning in the state with a total working capital of Rs.92.21 lakhs. The membership and paid up share capital were Rs.2.05 and Rs. 31.79 lakhs respectively. Credit and non-credit operations during the period were also nominal. Loan disbursed during the year 1946 was Rs.10.62 lakhs only. Performance in the area of Consumer, Marketing etc. were also not remarkable when compared to the exquisite achievements during the succeeding years. A comparative statement of performance of the sector during pre and post-Independent era is shown in Annexure-I.
Before the formation of State of Kerala, Co-operatives under the area were administered by the Travancore Co-operative Societies Act V of 1112(M.E), Cochin Co-operative Societies Act XXVI of 1113(M.E) and Madras Co-operative Societies Act 1932. After the integration of Travancore and Cochin, Travancore-Cochin Co-operative Societies Act 1951 came into force with effect from 1.9.1952. After the formation of Kerala State, the Kerala Co-operative Societies Act of 1969 came into force with effect from15.5.1969 in order to enact a uniform law on co-operation applicable throughout the State. Consequent on the introduction of Kerala Co-operative Societies Act 1969, Societies with unlimited liability ceased to exist and societies with limited liability came into existence. Thereafter Government of Kerala passed the Kerala Co-operative (Amendment) Act 1999 which came into force with effect from 1.1.2000. Providing of membership to local body institutions, Deposit guarantee scheme in Primary Agricultural Credit Societies, Consortium Lending Scheme, Co-operative Development and Welfare Fund, Independent Election Commission, Separate Audit Wing and Vigilance Wing, and Co-operative Examination Board are the new provisions made in the Amendment Act.
ORGANISATION CHART OF THE OFFICE OF THE REGISTRAR OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES
The Department of Co-operation is headed by the Registrar of Co-operative Societies. At the Headquarters, the Registrar of Co-operative societies is assisted by four Additional Registrars of co-operative societies, two Joint Registrars, one Law Officer and one finance officer and a Research Officer. One Additional Registrar of co-operative societies is in charge of Credit wing and the second Additional Registrar looks after Consumer wing, and the third Additional Registrar is in charge of General administration and matters in respect of Circle Co-operative unions and publicity, and the fourth Additional Registrar is in charge of co-operative Information Bureau and Integrated Co-operative Development Project (ICDP) respectively.
Out of the two Joint Registrars in Head Office, one Joint Registrar is in charge of matters relating to the Marketing and Processing Co-operative Societies and other Joint Registrar is in charge looks into the matter pertaining to Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe Co-operative Societies in the State. The Law officer and Finance Officer who are on deputation from the secretariat advise the Registrar of Co-operative societies on matters relating to legal aspects and finance matters respectively.
Besides the above officers, 7 Deputy Registrars of Co-operative societies, 13 Assistant Registrars of Co-operative Societies, one Research officer from Economics and Statistics Department, One Editor Cum-Press Relation officer and one PA to Registrar of co-operative societies are working at the head quarters.
One Deputy Registrar of Co-operative Societies is working as intermediately officer of the ICDP Section in the headquarters.
In head office there were 24 sections. They are:-
1 Establishment-A (EA)
2 Establishment-B (EB)
3 Accounts
4 IT Division
5  Fin A
6  Fin B
7 Employees Matters of Co-operative Institutions (EM)
8 Marketing and processing- I
9 Marketing and processing -II
10 H V/M T
11 Consumer (CS)
12 Inspection Cell
13 General
14 Vigilance
15 Publication and Training (PT)
16 Scheduled Caste/Tribes (SCT)
17  Credit Long Term (CLT)
18  Credit general (CG)
19  Credit banking (CB)
20  Credit primaries (CP)
21 Integrated co-operative development Project (I C D P)
22  Planning & Monitoring (P&M)
23  Statistics (ST).
24  Co-operative Information Bureau
A Co-operative Information Bureau is functioning at the head office and a monthly publication Sahakarana Veedhi is published regularly by the Bureau. The Editor cum Press Relation Officer leads the Bureau.
The Statistical Wing is manned by the staff from the Department of Economics and Statistics.

A directorate of co-operative audit is constituted which is headed by director of Co-operative Audit who is an IAS/IAAS officer.  The director is assisted by one Additional Director, one Joint Director, One Deputy Director, One Assistant Director and Seven Auditors of Co-Operative societies.  The Directorate is engaged with audit of all co-operative institutions in the state.
A Co-Operative vigilance office is constituted to investigate all cases of misappropriation, corruption and major irregularities in Co-Operative societies. It is headed by DIG of Police assisted by three DYSPs, three C.I.s and police constables.  It has three zonal offices at Alleppy, Thrissur and Kannur. The Office of Co-Operative Vigilance Officer is in charge of a Joint Registrar of Co-Operative Societies.
In the district there are two wings that  is General and Audit. One Joint Registrar (General) and one Joint Director (Audit) are headed the above two wings respectively. At Taluk level one Assistant Registrar of Co-operative Societies for General Administration and one Assistant Director of Co-operative Societies, for audit of Co-operative Societies is functioning.
One Assistant Registrar of Co-operative Societies is working as Liaison Officer attached to the Joint Registrar (General) Ernakulam, to liaison the work with the Advocate General in respect of O.P s filed before the Hon.  High Court  of Kerala.
Services of 9 Deputy Registrars of Co-operative Societies and 23 Co-operative Inspectors are rendered to the State Co-Operative Union for working as Principals and Lecturers respectively in the 9 Co-operative Training Centres run by State Co-operative union on free services.
A vigilance wing is functioning in the Department and 1 Deputy Registrars all over the state look after/conducts Inspections in the Co-operative Societies.  A part from this an inspection cell headed by two Deputy Registrar constituted for Inspection mainly in Apex, central and Urban Banks.
A Co-operative Tribunal is also functioning as an appellate authority on the awards issued by the Departmental Arbitrators. The Tribunal is appointed from the judicial service and should be a judge not below the rank of District and Session judge.
Government vide GO (P) 1/03dt. 02.01.03 had constituted Co-operative Arbitration Court headed by one presiding officer to hear and dispose all Non-Monetary disputes in the state.
A Co-operative Election commission constituted vide G.O (Ms) 109/01/co-op DT. 9.11.01 comprising of the following staff is functioning at the Head quarters at Thiruvanamthapuram for conducting election in the credit co-operative societies in the state.

Additional Registrar of co-operative societies  /Secretary to commission
1
Senior  Inspector of co-operative Societies
1
Upper Division Clerk
1
Lower Division Clerk
1
Confidential Assistant
1
Driver
1
Peon
1